HEALTH CARE/NUTRITION/PATHOLOGY

Beleau, M. H., and W. G. Gilmartin. 1974. Antibiotic Serum Levels in Porpoises. Am Zoo Vets Annual Proceedings, pp. 119-127.
Serum levels of antibiotics commonly used in porpoises were determined.
Buck, C. D., and J. P. Schroeder. 1990. Public Health Significance of Marine Mammal Diseases. In: Handbook of Marine Mammal Me&icine: Health, Disease, and Rehabilita- tion, ed. L.A. Dierauf, pp. 163-173, CRC Press, Cleveland, OH.
A review of reported cases of humans infected with micro-organisms acquired from direct contact with various marine mammals is presented.
Cates, M. B., L. Kaufman, J. H. Grabau, J. M. Pletcher, and J. P. Schroeder. 1986. Blastomycosis in an Atlantic Bottlenosed Dolphin. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 189:1148-1150.
A lethargic, anorexic dolphin with a cranial abscess appeared to respond to treat- ment but died after four weeks. Upon necropsy, Blastomyces dermatitidis was found in all major organs.
Cates, M. B., and J. P. Schroeder. 1986. The Nutrition of Acclimated vs Newly Captured Tursiops truncatus. Aguatic Mammals 12:17-20.
Daily food intake with respect to weight and species of fish fed was recorded as kcal/g of fish dry matter for two groups of dolphins, one in captivity for over six years, the other newly caught in the Gulf of Mexico and transported to Hawaii. The new animals adapted readily to the established feeding regimen.
Colgrove, G. S., T. R. Sawa, J. T. Brown, P. F. McDowell, and P. E. Nachtigall. 2975. Necrotic Stomatitis in a Dolphin. Jour. WildlSfe Diseases 21:460-464.
Necrotic stomatitis of undetermined etiology was found in an Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin. The case history,'treatment, and hematologic findings are described.
Colgrove, G. S. 1975. A Survey of Erysipelothrix insidiosa Agglutinating Antibody Titres in Vaccinated Porpoises. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 11(2):234-236.
Studies of antibody levels in the blood of porpoises previously vaccinated against the disease.
Colgrove, G. S. and G. Migaki. 1976. Cerebral Abscess Associated with Stranding in a Dolphin. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 12:271-274.
A captive bottlenosed dolphin, which beached itself in the shailows of its enclosure and later died, was found to have an abscess in the right cerebral hemisphere. Examination of the brain revealed a pyogenic meningoencephalitis.

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Colgrove, G. S. 1978. Suspected Transportation-Associated Myopathy in a Dolphin. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn . 173(9):1121-1223.
Evidence suggesting capture myopathy (CM), a potentially fatal condition associated with capture or transport of wildlife, was found in a Pacific bottlenosed dolphin following a routine transportation procedure. With treatment, the animal recovered. It is speculated that "capture shock" in dolphins may have features in commbn with CM .
Colgrove, G. S. 1978. Stimulation of Lymphocytes from a Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) by phytomitogens. Am. Jour. Vet. Res. 39:141-144.
Dolphin Iymphocytes responded (by increased thymidine incorporation) to three phytomitogens, of which one, concanavalin, consistently produced the highest degree of stimulation. Such stimulation could enhance the dolphin's immune response.
Dailey, M. D. 1969. Stictadora ubelakeri, A New Species of Heterophylid Trematode from the California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus). BuIE. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 68(2):82-85.
Describes a new species of parasitic flatworm.
Dailey, M. D., and S. H. Ridgway. 1976. A Trematode from the Round Window of an Atlantic Bottlenosed Dolphin's Ear. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 12:45-47.
A fluke was found attached to the round window of a dolphin's ear. The presence of the fluke could impair hearing.
Dailey, M. D., and W. G. Gilmartin. 1980. Diagnostic Key to the Parasites of Some Marine Mammals. NOSC TD 295, 37 pp.
A key, with illustrations, for identification of parasites of marine mammals studied by the Navy.
DeLong, R. L., W. G. Gilmartin, and J. G. Simpson. 1973. Premature Births in California Sea Lions: Association with High Organochlorine Pallutant Residual Levels. Science 181:1168-1170.
Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyl residues were two to eight times higher in tissues of premature parturient females and pups than in similar tissues of full-term parturient females and pups collected in 1970.
Diamond, S. S., D. E. Ewing, and G. A. Cadwell. 1979. Fatal bronchopneumonia and dermatitis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 175(9):984-987.

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Diamond, S. S., C. P. Raflo, M. H. Beleau, and G. A. Cadwell. 1980. Edema Disease in a California Sea Lion. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 177(9):808-810.
Describes features and identifies probable causative organism of edema disease, similar to that occurring in swine, that was diagnosed in a sea lion.
Fujioka, R. S., S. B. Greco, M. B. Cates, and J. P. Schroeder. 1988. Vibrio damsela from Wounds in Bottlenosed Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Dis. Aquat. Orgs. 4:1-8.
Different Vibrio bacteria were recovered from healthy skin and slow-healing wounds of dolphins and from surrounding sea pen water in Hawaii. Vibrio damsela predomi- nated in samples from wounds and is identified as the probable primary bacterium causing wound infections in dolphins.
Geraci, J. R. and S. H. Ridgway. 1992. On Disease Transmission Between Dolphins and Humans. Marine Mammal Sci. 7:191-194.
The authors review the literature on dolphin disease transmission. From their own experience and from the literature reviewed, they conclude that through close asso- ciation with dolphins people are just as safe, and probably more so, than through association with companion animals such as dogs.
Gilmartin, W. G., J. F. Allen, and S. H. Ridgway. 1971. Vaccination of Porpoises (Tur- siops truncatus) Against Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Infection. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 7:292-295.
A live product was found to stimulate antibody production better than the killed bacterin. An immunization schedule utilizing an initial exposure to the bacterin with subsequent exposures to the live vaccine product is proposed.
Gilmartin, W. G., R. L. Delong, A. W. Smith, J. C. Sweeney, B. W. DeLappe, R. W. Risebrough, L. A. Griner, M. D. Dailey, and D. B. Peakall. 1976. Premature Parturition in the California Sea Lion. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 12:104-114.
The data suggested an interrelationship of disease agents and environmental con- tarninants as the cause of premature parturition.
Gilmartin, W. G., P. M. Vainik, and V. M. Neill. 1979. Salmonellae in Feral Pinnipeds Off the Southern California Coast. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 15:511-514.
Rectal swabs were collected from 90 northern fur seal and 50 Califomia sea lion pups on San Miguel Island. Three Salmonella serotypes were recovered from 33 per- cent of the fur seals and 40 percent of the sea lions.

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Hui, C. A., and S. H. Ridgway. 1978. Survivorship Patterns in Captive Killer Whales (Orcinus orca). Bull. Southern California Acad. Sci. 77:45-52
Captive killer whales were found to have an overall mortality rate of 4.7 percent per year, with females having a higher rate (7 percent) than males (2.1 percent), and larger females having a shorter captive life span than smaller females. It is sug- gested that capture stress may be a significant mortality factor; less stressful capture procedures may increase captive life span.
Johnston, D. G., and S. H. Ridgway. 1969. Parasitism in Some Marine Mamrnals. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 155(7):1064-1072.
Case histories of parasitism in porpoises and sea lions.
Martin, J. H., P. D. Elliott, V. C. Anderlini, D. Girvin, S. A. Jacobs, R. W. Hisebrough, R. L. Delong, and W. G. Gilmartin. 1976. Mercury-Selenium-Bromine Imbalance in Premature Parturient California Sea Lions. In: Marine Biology, pp. 91-104. Springer- Verlag, Publ., New York, NY.
Livers and kidneys from 10 normal parturient and 10 premature parturient mothers and their pups were analyzed for 13 trace and major elements. The data suggested a very strong relationship between Hg, Se, and Br in the normal animals but a Br imbalance, in relation to Se and Hg, in the abnormal mothers and their pups. Details and significance of these and other findings are discussed.
Mattsson, J. L., and R. L. Seeley. 1974. Simple Clinical Temperature Telemetry System for Pinnipeds. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 10:267-271.
A radiotelemetry pill was used to monitor core body temperature of sea lions kept in an enclosure. Mean core temperature was found to be 38.1'C.
Medway, W., J. G. McCormick, S. H. Ridgway, and F. H. Crump. 1970. Effects of Pro- longed Halothane Anesthesia on Some Cetaceans. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 157(5):576-582.
After proionged halothane anesthesia (up to 24 hours) variable histologic changes were found, but were judged not to be significant. Plasma enzyme activities moni- tored did not indicate significant liver damage.
Migaki, G., R. D. Gunneis, and H. W. Casey. 1978. Pulmonary Cryptococcosis in an Atlantic Bottlenosed Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Laboratory Animal Science 28:603-606.
Pulmonary cryptococcosis was diagnosed in a 7-year-old dolphin that had been in captivity for about 4 years. This was the first report of this disease in a cetacean.

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Miller, R. M., and S. H. Ridgway. 1963. Clinical Experiences with Dolphins and Whales. Small Animal Clinician 3(4):189-193.
Diagnosis and treatment of diseases found in dolphins and whales.
Myhre, B. A., J. G. Simpson, and S. H. Ridgway. 2971. Blood Groups in the Atlantic bottlenosed porpoise (Tursiops truncatus). Proc. Soc. Expl. Biol. Med. 137:404-407.
A study of porpoise blood demonstrated three blood groups. Transfusions must be made with blood matching that of the recipient.
Myrick, A. C. Jr., W. E. Stuntz, S. H. Ridgway, and D. K. Odell. 1987. Hypocalcemia in Spotted Dolphins (Stenella attenuata) Chased and Captured by a Purse Seiner in the Eastern TropicalPacific. (Abstract) Abstracts ofthe Seventh Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, Soc. Mar. Mammalogy, Miami, FL., p. 49.
Blood samples from dolphins that had been chased in tuna sets were tested for calcium level. These levels were found to be low compared to previously published values on healthy dolphins. It is possible that the observed hypocalcemia was due to the stress of chase and capture.
Nachtigall, P. E., J. L. Pawloski, J. P. Schroeder, and S. Sinclair. 1990. Successful Main- tenance and Research with a Formerly Stranded Risso's Dolphin (Grampus griseus). Aguatic Mammals, 16(1):8-13.
The rehabilitation of a stranded Grampus is described. Values for blood parameters are listed. Subsequent research with the animal is described.
Palmer, C., J. P. Schroeder, R. S. Fujioka, and J. Douglas. 1991. Staphyloccus aureus Infection in Newly Captured Pacific Bottlenosed Dolphins, Jaurnal ofZoo and Wildlife Medicine 22(3):330-338.
The diagnostic tests employed to identify the origin of Staph organisms isolated from dolphins captured around the Hawaiian Islands are described.
Pawloski, J. L., and P. E. Nachtigall. 1988. Simultaneous Measurement;of Oral and Rectal Temperatures in a Nonrestrained Atlantic Bottlenosed Dolphin. (Abstract) Interna- tional Marine Animal Trainers Association, San Antonio, Texas.
Utilizing a specialized mouthpiece, safe and accurate oral temperatures were mea- sured in an Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin concurrently while measuring the animal's rectal body temperature. These data were collected on a routine basis with an ani- mal trained specifically for this task.
Ridgway, S. H. 1965. Medical Care of Marine Mammals. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 147(10):1077-1085.
An account of experience gained in the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of marine mammals.

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Ridgway, S. H., and D. G. Johnston. 1965. Two Interesting Disease Cases in Wild Cetace- ans. Am. Jour. Vet. Res. 26(112):771-775.
A Pacific common dolphin (Delphinus), which stranded itself on a beach, was found to be infested with larval tapeworm cysts, and unidentified ava were found in abscesses in the brain.
Ridgway, S. H., and J. G. Simpson. 1967. Anesthesia and Restraint for the California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus). Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Gssn. 155(7):1059-1063.
Describes a technique for anesthetizing sea lions, and the configuration of a unique restraining cage which enables the animal to be examined, treated, or anesthetized without harm to either the sea lion or the handlers.
Ridgway, S. H. 1967. Anesthetization of Porpoises for Major Surgery. Science 158(3800): 510-512.
Account of a technique for achieving deep anesthesia in porpoises. Major surgery (ovario-hysterectomy) has been performed with complete recovery.
Ridgway, S. H. 1968. The Bottlenosed Dolphin in Biomedical Research. In: Methods in Animal Experimentation. 3:387-446, ed. W. I. Gay, Academic Press, Sar! Diego, CA.
A broad account of the characteristics and behavior of the bottlenosed dolphin as they relate to health care and biomedical research.
Ridgway, S. H., and J. G. McCormick. 1971. Anesthesia of the Porpoise. In: Textbook of Veterinary Anesthesia, pp. 394-403, ed. L. R. Soma. The Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore, MD.
Discusses special considerations on anesthetizing cetaceans, revlews history of attempts at anesthetization and describes a successful technique utilizing halothane as the anesthetic.
Ridgway, S. H., and M. D. Dailey. 1972. Cerebral and Cerebellar Involvement of Trematode Parasites in Doiphins and Their Possible Role in Stranding. Jour. WiEdlife Diseases 8:33-43.
Trematode parasites found in the brains of stranded porpoises may offer an expla- nation for some cetacean strandings.
Ridgway, S. H., J. R. Geraci, and W. Medway. 1975. Diseases of Pinnipeds. Rapp. P.-v. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 196:327-337
The major disease conditions encountered in pinnipeds are described.

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Ridgway, S. H., R. F. Green, and J. C. Sweeney. 1975. Mandibuiar Anesthesia and Tooth Extraction in the Bgttlenosed Dolphin. Jour. Wikdlife Diseases 11:415-418.
Describes a technique for anesthetizing the lower jaw for tooth extraction.
Ridgway, S. H., and J. N. Prescott.`1977. The Quandary of Whether to Retain or Release Rehabilitated Strandlings. (Abstract) In: Biology of Marine Mammals: Insights Through Strandings, pp. 298-299, ed. J. B. Geraci and D. J. St. Aubin. Report prepared for Marine Mammal Commission. Nat'l. Tech. Info. Serv. PB-293-890.
Pending availability of information necessary for establishing a release program that will maximize survival of rehabilitated strandlings, the authors recommend that such animals be distributed to public display and research institutions, thereby replacing others that might be taken from wild stocks.
Ridgway, S. H. 1977. Brain Abscesses, Flukes, and Strandings. (Abstract) In: Biolagy of Marine Mammals: Insights Through Strandings, pp. 83-84, eds. J. B. Geraci and D. J. St. Aubin. Report prepared for Marine Mammal Commission. Nat'l. Tech. Info. Serv. PB-293-890.
Argues that brain abscesses resulting from trematode infestation, which have been found in a number of stranded dolphins, contribute to stranding.
Ridgway, S. H. 1979. Reported Causes of Death of Captive Killer Whales (Orcinus orca). Jour. Wildlife Diseases 15:99-`104.
A variety of diseases and other pathologic conditions were found responsible for deaths of captive killer whales. Captive females appeared to have a higher mortality rate than males. Growth rates for whales that died were greater than for those that SUI^ViVed.
Ridgway, S. H. 1983. Dolphin Hearing and Sound Production in Health and Illness. In: Hearing and Other Senses: Presentations in Honor of E. G. Wever, pp. 247-296, ed. R. R. Fay and G. Gurevich, Amphora Press, Groton, CN.
Review of findings on dolphin hearing, with accounts of modern anatomic and physiologic work on the ear; the brain, evoked potentials, and audition; and evidence that sound production can be used to assess dolphin health and mood.
Schroeder, J. P. 1987. Marine Mammal Health Management Based on Immune System Response to Stress and Infectious Disease. (Abstract) Abstracts of the Seventh Bien- nial Conference on the Biology ofMarine Mammals, Soc. Mar. Mammalogy, Miami, FL.,
Information on health management of marine mammals based on research at NOSC is presented.

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Schroeder, J. P., D. M. Fry, and N. A. Vedros. 1989. Assessment and Management of Response to Stressors of Oil Contamination of Sea Oaers (Enhydra lutris). (Abstract) Abstracts of the Eighth BienniaE Conference on the Biology of Marine Mam- mals, Soc. Mar. Mammalogy, Pacific Grove, CA., p. 61.
The immune system response of sea otters to the Exxon Valdez oil spill and identifi- cation of acute phase response parameters are linked to management and rehabilita- tion techniques.
Schroeder, J. P., J. G. Wallace, M. B. Greco, and P. W. B. Moore. 1985. An Infection by Vibrio alginolyticus in an Atlantic Bottlenosed Dolphin Housed in an Open Ocean Pen. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 21:437-438.
Describes the lesions on a dolphin that had a history of skin problems, the culture techniques used to identify the pathogen, and the successful therapy following tests to deterrnine sensitivity of the Vibrio organisms to a variety of antibiotics. Also dis- cusses the susceptibility of humans to infection by Vibrio ssp.
Shinder, D. M. 1983. Separation and Removal of Marine Mammals for Medical Examina- tion. In: Proceeding of the International Marine Animal Trainers Grsociation Conference, pp. 93-102, eds. M. T. Chunko, E. Krajniak, and J. Honvich, Apple Valley, MN.
This paper describes four methods for removing dolphins from the water for physi- cal examination. The resources needed and procedures used are presented for crowding, stranding, beaching, and tail presentation.
Simpson, J. G., and W. G. Gilmartin. 1970. An Investigation of Elephant Seal and Sea Lion Mortality on San Miguel Island. Bioscience, 1 March 1970, p. 289.
At the request of state and federal authorities following the Santa Barbara oil spill, an investigation was made to detem?ine if oil washing up on San Miguel Island had affected any of the seals and sea lions there. No evidence was found of illness or mortality attributable to the oil.
Smith, A. W., C. M. Prato; W. G. Gilmartin, R. J. Brown, and M. C. Keyes. 1974. A Preliminary Report on Potentially Pathogenic Microbiological Agents Recently Iso- lated from Pinnipeds. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 10:54-59.
Leptospira may be one cause of reproductive failure (abortion) in California sea lions and fur seals. Certain virus isolations from sea lions and fur seals appeared indistinguishable from vesicular exanthoma, a swine virus, which is known to cause abortion in swine. Pinnipeds may constitute a reservoir for virus diseases that infect terrestrial mammals.

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Smith, A. W., N. A. Vedros, T. G. Akers, and W. G. Gilmartin. 1978. Hazards of Disease Transfer from Marine Mammals to Land Animals: Review and Recent Findings. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 173:1131-1133.
Certain disease agents, bacterial and viral, are widespread in a variety of marine mammals, and some are transmissible to a number of terrestrial mammal species.
Smith, A. W., and D. E. Skilling. 2979. Viruses and Virus Diseases of Marine Mammals. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 175:918-920.
Presents information on the kinds of viruses that have been isolated from pinnipeds and cetaceans, and shows, where possible, the relationship of these agents to spe- cific diseases.
Smith, A. W., D. E. Skilling, and S. H. Ridgway. 1983. Calicivirus-induced Vesicular Disease in Cetaceans and Probable Interspecies Transmission. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 183:1223-1225.
A new calicivirus serotype, isolated from a dolphin, was apparently transmitted from the dolphin to a sea lion and from the sea lion to another dolphin.
Smith, A. W., D. E. Skilling, and S. H. Ridgway. 1983. Regression of Cetacean Tattoo Lesions Concurrent with Conversion of Precipitin Antibody Against a Poxvirus. Jour. Am . Vet. Med. Assn . 183:1219-1222.
Tatoo lesions linked to cetacean poxvirus in bottlenosed dolphins regressed without treatment. Regression was concurrent with antibody conversion.
Suer, L. D., N. A. Vedros, J. P. Schroeder, and J. L. Dunn. 1988. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. II. Enzyme Immunoassay of Sera from Wild and Captive Marine Mam- mals. Dis. Aguat. Orgs. 5:7-13.
An enzyme immunoassay was developed and used on sera from marine mammals. Wild bottlenosed dolphins had lower antibody levels than captive, vaccinated cetace- ans. Antibody levels in wild and captive pinnipeds varied. Possible explanations for erratic and low antibody levels observed are discussed.
Sweeney, J. C. 1974. Transfusion of Homologous and Heterologous Red Blood Cells (Washed And Unwashed) in the California Sea Lion. Am. Assn. Zoo Vets. AnnuaE Proceedings, pp. 131-135.
Red blood cells tagged with 51,, were used to compare the longevity of homologous and heterologous (sheep) transfused cells. The sheep cells were quickly removed from circulation.

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Sweeney, J. C. 1974. Common Diseases of Pinnipeds. Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assn. 165(9):805-810.
Discusses the various diseases found in seals, sea lions, and walruses.
Sweeney, J. C. 1974. Procedures for Clinical Management of Pinnipeds. Jour. Am Vet. Med. Assn . 165(9):811-814.
Describes clinical approach to diagnoses, treatment techniques, surgical procedures, dietary problems, and physical injuries.
Sweeney, J. C., and W. G. Gilmartin. 1974. Survey of Diseases in Free-living California Sea Lions. Jour. Wildlife Diseases 10:370-376.
Presents data on 51 California sea lions that stranded on southern California beaches and were examined by necropsy. Includes comments on the diagnosis and treatment of the more commonly found diseases.
Sweeney, J. C., and S. H. Ridgway. 1975. Procedures for the Clinical Management of Small Cetaceans. Jour. Am. Iret. Med. Assn. 167:540-545.
Methods for the treatment of disease and injury in small cetaceans.
Sweeney, J. C., and S. H. Ridgway. 1975. Common Diseases of Small Cetaceans. Jour. Am. Iret. Assn. 167:533-540.
Brief descriptions of commonly encountered disease conditions.
Sweeney, J. C., G. Migaki, P. M. Vainik, and R. H. Conklin. 1976. Systemic Mycoses in Marine Mammals. Jour. Am Vet. Me&. Assn. 169(9):946-948.
Thirty-four cases of systemic mycosis were represented by nine genera of fungi. All were characterized by pulmonary involvement.
Sweeney, J. C. 1977. Intratracheal Injection of Antibiotics in the California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus) and bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Jour. Wildlife Diseases 13:49-54.
Gentamycin and cephaloridine were administered by intratracheal injections, and uptake and clearance in the blood were monitored. In all cases, absorption through the respiratory mucosa resulted in blood levels approaching therapeutic concentra- tions despite low dosages.
Van Dyke, D. 1972. Contingency Rations for California Sea Lions. NUC TP 317, 7 pp.
Describes the fonnulation and testing of a prepared ration that may be fed exclu- sively for at least 4 weeks.

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Van Dyke, D., and S. H. Ridgway. 1977. Diets for Marine Mammals. In: Handbook of Nutrition and Food, pp. 595-598, ed. M. Rechcigl, CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio.
Diets and caloric intakes of various marine mammals are described.

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